Chapter 4
THE POPULAR VERSION OF THE CONCEPT OF
MORAL PURIFICATION IN CHINESE LITERATURE
During the T’ang dynasty (seventh century A.D.), Buddhism began to flourish in China. Later, the Ch’an Buddhism developed in the north and east spread to southern China. The infusion of different belief system changed the Chinese cultural map in three significant ways:
1. Chinese thought was impacted. Confucianism, Taoism, and Ch’an Buddhism were amalgamated into Neo-Confucianism. Adherents of this new school of philosophy usually denounced Buddhism, though its essence often appeared in their writings, even to the extent of occasionally using Buddhist vocabularies. There is a saying “Sung-Ju-Fei-Ju” ( 宋儒非儒 ): Neo-Confucianism is Non-Confucianism. Therefore, the charge may not be totally unfounded.
2. The Chinese language was affected by Buddhism. When a forceful new religion or set of major philosophical tenets is imported into another land, it inevitably alters the native language to some degree. In the Western world, such an invasion may simply influence and enrich a native language by adding a number of provocative concepts to its vocabulary: e.g., karma, tao, logos, praxis. However, this is not practicable in written Chinese, with its limitations on available characters. Existing signs are therefore given new meanings, as happens with translation and transliteration. This extending of words’ capacities creates an added stress on the language. Moreover, new terms and phrases in the spoken language often result in confusion.
3. Chinese literature was impacted when it absorbed the new materials. As a rule, changes in thought and language are imprinted on writings produced during and after transmittal. Chinese literature began carrying innumerable traces of the potent new influences on ethics.
The propagation of Ch’an Buddhism, as a migrant movement from north to south, coincides historically with a period of social unrest. At that time, Southern China was a relatively uncultured region. To make a comparison with another migration scenario, it resembled the American westward expansion from New England to the Pacific frontier; in carrying out Manifest Destiny it also had a quasi-religious motivation, along with its economic thrust.
The Chinese Literary Tradition
Thought, language, and literature never come to us separately, one after another, like the apocalyptic Four Horsemen. In fact, the three intermingle as closely as organic molecules. Through literature, religious and philosophical thoughts penetrate into human minds, spreading into all strata of society, interweaving and interacting as they run through the course of history. Thus literature becomes the most effective media of transmitting ideas. 1
To the Chinese people, the land and the race perpetually exist, and there is no boundary between moral principles and practices. This is especially true in popular literature.
Traditionally, the Chinese people greatly revere their native literati. Both prose and poetry in Chinese literature developed initially among the intelligentsia, who wrote for their peers, not for the common folk. Aristotle’s opinion of the proper literary role, however, is quite different. He stated that --
The poet’s function is to describe, not the thing that has happened, but a kind of thing that might happen, i.e. what is possible as being probable or necessary…. Hence poetry is something more philosophic and of graver import than history, since its statements are of the nature rather of universals, whereas those of history are singulars. By a universal statement I mean one as to what such or such a kind of man will probably or necessarily say or do -- which is the aim of poetry, though it affixes proper names to the characters. 2
The Greek philosopher clearly recognized the importance and effectiveness of poetics -- that is, the power of creative or imaginative writings. Chinese popular literature, however, historically lagged far behind in this form of literature. Until Ch’an Buddhism gained a foothold in China, precipitating the eclectic Neo-Confucianism, little attention was paid to developing a popular, “lowbrow” or leisure literature that educated while it entertained. Thus literature composed in a more democratic genre came rather late and slowly.
To publicize any new idea widely among a populace, popular language must be used. In China, therefore, the vernacular (demotic) language was adapted to literary needs. Neo-Confucian scholars like the highly reputed Master Chu Hsi, the Ch’eng brothers, and Lu Hsiang-shan followed the trend. Mixtures of the vernacular with the classic style appeared in all their writings. This approach had never been taken before by scholars; previously they had written for a highly cultured, relatively small audience.
Purification of Individuals
The Chinese Ch’an Buddhism was manifested and propagated by its famous Sixth Patriarch, Hui-neng (638-713). His most celebrated verse is related to the story of the establishment of the Ch’an school.
The story tells how one day Hung-jen, the Fifth Patriarch, announced a verse competition as the way to examine his pupils’ understanding of the dark mysticism of Ch’an Buddhism. The Head Monk, Shen-hsiu, composed a verse and wrote it on a corridor wall:
The body is the Bodhi-tree [i.e., perfect wisdom],
The mind is a bright mirror stand.
Wipe it diligently day by day,
To keep it from getting dust.
But a novice monk came from the rice-pounding area. Hui-neng had composed another verse. Because he was illiterate, he asked someone else to write it on the wall:
Bodhi in origin is not a tree,
Nor is the bright mirror a stand.
Originally there is nothing at all,
What could get dust? 3
As the story goes, Hui-neng subsequently got a robe and a bowl from Hung-jen, the symbols of authority transmitted, and became the Sixth Patriarch. But the divergence in philosophical approach behind the two verses has never quite been settled.
From our vantage point in time, we may see the matter differently. While Hui-neng’s verse claims the superior amoral tone of emptiness, there is merit in Shen-hsiu’s wish to “wipe” desires from one’s mind and diligently keep it bright. And to be fair to Hui-neng, we must admit he is not so naïve as to mean that everybody is nobody; he simply stresses that all ideals spring from a state of mind, or self-nature.
For Hui-neng it was sufficient to “Simply purify your mind; your self nature is the Pure Land.” 4 This aim sounds attractive enough. Yet in practice Shen-hsiu’s emphasis on daily cultivation is more down to earth, more in line with the basic Chinese concept of moral purification. Nevertheless, Shen-hsiu’s school was less popular than Hui-neng’s because of its high demands on the individual and the difficulty of practicing its doctrines.
Chinese literati of that era, however, are inclined toward Shen-hsiu’s side . As a result, in traditional Chinese literature, Shen-hsiu’s ideas are prevalent, whereas Hui-neng’s are less so. Especially among the Neo-Confucianists the concept of moral purification can be found. Its presence among them is scarcely surprising, since it originated in Confucianism itself.
The Neo-Confucianists unhesitatingly attacked Buddhism. Yet believing it an effective way to combat the religion, freely and enthusiastically they borrowed Buddhist ideas, especially terms and the vernacular style of writing. In most cases, they grafted Buddhist ideas together with their own. They could do this with ease, sometimes gracefully, because Ch’an Buddhism has few religious elements thus reducing any exclusive nature and is essentially philosophical, making it easier to merge with other ideas. Another factor contributing to this fusion was the common vocabularies shared by all the people of the land, regardless of religious belief.
In literary form at least, the Ch’an Buddhist bent toward the cultivation of mind and the Neo-Confucianist emphasis on moral purification became so intermingled that one does not even sense the need for any separation. One of these examples is Chu Hsi’s poem:
A square pond of half-an-acre opened a mirror
The heaven-light and cloud-shadow walking with me to and fro:
“How could you be kept so clean and clear?”
“Because there is coming from the fountainhead
The living water flow.” 5
One can draw inspiration and support here from either a Confucian or a Buddhist point of view. Yet the poem itself has literary merit. Although it apparently pictures an idyllic life of leisure and ease, it does more than that. Beneath the surface the poem is rich in metaphors, showing a similarity to allegorical Buddhist literature. The images of “mirror,” “clouds,” etc., are key words among Buddhists, and this walking to and fro with them symbolizes one’s life. The pond’s square shape is the traditional Chinese metaphor for the human environment, providing the four directions of the Earth. (The ancient Chinese believed the Heaven is round and the Earth is square in shape.)
For the Neo-Confucianists, whether in shadow and delusion or in reality, what really matters is cultivating and purifying one’s mind. The poem conveys the message that the individual must eliminate desires or karma so as to keep the mind -- the fountainhead of human actions -- clear. One thereby can achieve moral purification. Thus the author’s mental reflection furnishes a beautiful vision of the unity of Heaven and human kind.
Purification in Traditional Chinese Folk Tales
For an untutored populace, however, this concept of purification may be too rarefied. So for them many stories were created with the purpose of encouraging people to strive for what is morally good -- akin to the medieval morality plays. One such story is that of Chou Ch’u ( 周處 ), who was a village bully. As a young man, he chose to employ all his high ability and might not for doing what is right, but for doing evil. So he ranked among the Three Detrimentals of the region; the other two were a tiger in the South Mountain and a dragon under the Long Bridge. One day, an old man unintentionally talked to him about Chou’s ill reputation as one of the “great sorrows” in the locality, which shocked Chou to his senses. Morally awakened, he determined to purify himself from all evil behaviors and transform his existence. Having changed from a vicious to a virtuous person, he eventually became a scholar and loyal official, ending his life gloriously in the cause of defending his country in righteous duty. 6
Actually, the most celebrated story of all is the one told about Mencius. As a youth, he drifted among ignorant companions and formed bad habits. Only after receiving his prudent mother’s severe admonition did he purify himself, abandon all his follies, study hard, and then become the most revered and renowned sage of all times, second to none but Confucius.
There are many similar stories which have scant literary merit. During the Sung dynasty and afterward (tenth century A.D. on), especially the Yuan dynasty (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries), popular themes appear first in drama form, then in novels. As time went by, the trend continued, and it developed a vast body of literature. Only in this century did this development come to a halt, and turn in a striking different direction. Political propaganda and sentimental literature take over. The former has ample public funding to support it, and the latter feeds off commercial gain. Thus the weeds and tares began choking the literary field, to carry the day. However, since both of these genres are basically amoral or immoral, one can predict the quality of the harvests reaped from them.
Purification of Society
During the Sung dynasty, to spread their teachings among the populace, the Chinese Buddhists developed a new literary profession. Its practitioners somewhat resembled public lecturers. They usually integrated a moral theme into a simple tale, which they presented using a special technique called Pien Wen ( 變文 ), which means “versatile style.” 7 This genre, accommodating the need for new themes as time goes by and audiences change, appeared on the Chinese literary scene as vernacular prose, with mixed rhymed verses in the opening, middle, and ending. In a period when people had ample leisure time but few pastimes, this community entertainment naturally was welcomed. 8
Justice Pao (or Magistrate Pao) is the Chinese people’s all-time favorite folk hero. Pao Cheng ( 包拯 ), a historical personage, was Lord Mayor of the imperial capital city Kaifeng during the Sung dynasty. As a court official, his exemplary dignity, integrity, austerity, and extraordinary sense of morality, made him a legendary figure in his own lifetime. Said to be wholly blameless and incorruptible, Pao was idealized and idolized. He supported only what was right, gave no special respect to anyone, and showed no favoritism – for which he earned the nickname of “The Iron Faced.” The emperor himself revered and feared Pao. Even the rulers of Hades had to yield to him, and he obtained the privilege of searching the secret files of all souls. But Pao’s principal tasks were to straighten out mundane affairs by using his Solomon-like wisdom, to purge social evils, and to execute justice throughout the empire.
Many centuries have passed since Pao’s lifetime, and in the course of history the Pao legends roll on like a snowball, becoming ever larger, much grander than life-size. And with today’s media adding wind to its wings, Justice Pao’s story has now spread over all continents, appearing on TV screens to draw an audience of many millions.
Kuan Han-ch’ing ( 關漢卿 ca. 1220-1307), probably the first person to write Pao stories, was almost certainly the greatest Yuan-dynasty dramatist. Kuan’s drama The Butterfly Dream ( 蝴蝶夢 ) is well known. 9 The story tells of three brothers who avenged their father’s death by killing the local bully, Keh Piao. When the widowed mother appeared in court with her three sons, Justice Pao noted their good behavior and mutual love. He recalled a recent dream in which he had found three little butterflies that were caught in a spider’s web. Taking pity on them, he had freed them -- just as he did now with the three men. Restored to good fortune, eventually all three became officials. In the simple plot the theme of rewarding good and purging evil is abundantly clear.
Later on, a much enlarged version appeared in The Strange Case of Magistrate Pao ( 包公奇案 ). A longer book by Shih Yu-kun ( 石玉崑 ), The Legend of the Three Knights and Five Rats ( 三俠五義 ), includes 120 chapters. The Ch’ing dynasty (19th century) scholar Yu Yueh ( 俞樾 ), who praised the book highly, edited it and changed its title to The Legend of Seven Knights and Five Rats ( 七俠五義 ). In this book, in addition to the celebrated Magistrate Pao Cheng, are various Robin-Hood-type figures operating within a self-styled underground justice system. Interweaving epistemological with moral stories, the stories’ overall message is to purge evils in court and in society. In these ways public interest in morality was created. More and more legends along these lines were added in the course of time.
But why this popular literary phenomenon? Because the promised “Golden Age” envisaged by Confucianists never materialized. Chinese moral philosophy had given people high ideals of what their society could and should be. Unfortunately, they were disappointed with how things really were. Officials and society had become hopelessly corrupted, and ordinary citizens, frustrated and exploited, craved justice. The corruptible human nature was everywhere, like weeds growing all over the land. The people felt like the attendees at Tantalus’s feast -- always having the ideal civic morality above them, but never being able to attain it. Their only consolation was to hold onto the figure of Justice Pao for comfort and hope. Their attachment also indicates an innate attraction to what is right and a revulsion against what is wrong, which expects people to act accordingly. This simple disposition is truly the basis for morality. It also explains a periodic upsurge of interest in moral purification.
Celestial, Legal, and Moral Disorder
The early masterpiece of folk fiction is Shui-hu Chuan: A Saga of the Marshes ( 水滸傳 , The book has appeared in various translations; the best-known one in English has translator Pearl Buck’s title, All Men are Brothers.) The first 71 chapters are written by Shi Nai-an ( 施耐菴 ), the later part by Lo Kuan-chung ( 羅貫中 ). 10 The book is based on stories of Sung-dynasty bandits. However, its characters increased from the historical 36 to 108, also many subplots are introduced. The armed dissenters, portrayed as enlightened discontents, were idealized into heroes.
In the novel, this gang of bandits robbed the rich to give to the poor, and protected the weak from the strong. One such episode is told in “Wu Yung Took the Gift-Treasure by Guile.”
In the East Capital, a birthday celebration was announced. Therefore Governor Liang sent his congratulatory gifts of “ten thousand strings [coins] worth of treasures” to the prime minister. Captain Yang Chih was sent with a team of soldiers to guard the essentially ill-gotten treasure, and they set out on their trip on a hot summer day. In a pine forest, they fell into a trap set by the “Great Intelligence,” Wu Yung. Gang leader Ch’ao Kai, and their fellow bandits robbed the corrupt treasure by guile. During this episode, the disguised bandits sang a song revealing their sense of injustice:
“The sun burns with a fiery hand,
The rice is scorched on the dry land.
The farmers’ hearts are hot with grief,
But idle princes must be fanned.”
With his mission now a failure, Captain Yang Chih himself joined the gang -- a result that satisfied everyone. 11
In contrast with an aristocratic court reflecting sheer moral corruption, the “all men are brothers” of the marshes seemed an ideal society. Ironically, when robbers and bandits have halos on their heads, would the wicked officials be adorned with devils’ horns and carry pitchforks? The sharp contrast between the two groups hints at the dreadful moral condition within the state, which surely calls out for purification. Therefore, these narrated deeds convey a symbolic or imaginary moral purification to readers.
In Shui Hu Chuan, government officials are presented in a highly uncomplimentary way. It is an archetype of kakistocracy in which the worst sort of people rule. The Chief Minister of the Military, Tai-Wei Koa Chiu, was originally a vagabond. He “knows nothing about humanity, righteousness, propriety and wisdom, and [is] without any virtue of loyalty, goodness, and faithful deeds”; and he loves bribery and villainy. 12
In fact, the whole story of these “Brothers of the Marshes” was initially generated by a Chief Minister of the Military, Hung, who had factually opened a Chinese Pandora’s Box to let out 108 demons -- which became the heroes of Mount Liang. 13 Nonetheless, this demonic gang became quite benevolent. The author purposefully makes this story appear in the first chapter of the book as an introductory note. It serves a double purpose. Symbolically, the message is that social evils are given fertile ground by government officials. Realistically seen as individual humans, the bandits are contrasted with the officials, demonstrating that the latter are more diabolical than demons.
As to the bandit-heroes of Mount Liang, they are ordinary people from all walks of life, who suffered injustice and got more than their fair share of grievances. Though having weaknesses and shortcomings, they are still generally honest. Committed to each other, they are never unfaithful to comrades. They do not indulge in adultery or other immoral actions. Such qualities qualify them as defenders of social ethics and purgers of evil. Oppressed and persecuted, they were forced to become outlaws.
They [the bandit-heroes] have different backgrounds, different personal traits and appearances, different experiences, and contacts; they share, however, a common lot in life as the victims of official persecution that forced them to tread together the path to Mount Liang [their base of rebellion camp]. 14
All these people, in one way or another, had trouble with the law, but generally they were not at fault. Now, because of the hopeless corruption of officialdom, they have taken justice into their own hands. Consider, for instance, the case of Wu Sung. When his sister-in-law had an adulterous affair with a rich country gentleman and the good-natured lawful husband protested, both culprits conspired and poisoned the husband. Wu Sung indignantly killed the couple in revenge for the evil committed. Though he was strong enough to kill the fierce tiger to purge that menace from the region, he could not effectively combat social evil, and thus had to flee into the green forest.
In the book, the bandits often are regarded as “administering Tao on behalf of Heaven.” Chieftain Sung Chiang is dubbed, by public favor, “Opportune Rain [at a time of draught].” He loves his comrades and empathizes with the unfortunate; he uses gold as dirt and has a sense of righteousness; he possesses versatile virtues. In spite of suffering much ill treatment by the officialdom, from time to time he expresses his yearning to redeem himself, together with his followers, through loyalty and meritorious service to the utmost in behalf of the country and the throne. Needless to say, to do this requires the right time and environment is needed, but this has never come to pass.
Another major figure is Lin Ch’ung. The prodigal son of Chief Minister Kao had tried to seduce his beautiful wife, but failed. So the father teamed up with the son and falsely accused Lin, his subordinate, and imprisoned him. He even conspired to assassinate him. However, with others’ help, Lin managed to escape, joining the gang on Mount Liang. 15
In the background, the novel’s elaborate purpose is to expose the social and political evils. It makes the bandits the real executors of justice, and the moral laws of their “green world” superior to the “red-and-white world,” so to speak. Because the plot is so suspenseful, the characterizations colorful and deep, and descriptions lively, Shui-hu Chuan: A Saga of the Marshes has all the elements of a superb novel. Therefore, its idea of moral purification is implanted in the reader’s mind.
The narrative of the novel is realistic, and the language is vernacular and plain. The personae seem to exist among our neighbors and can be seen at any corner of the streets. In short, they represent every fiber of human society. From the leader, Sung Chiang, and Lu Chun-Yi, to many other in the bandit group, a great contrast is made with the officials, who are all rotten to the very core. This comprehensive picture is enough to arouse the expectation for purification.
The reversal of fortune – the wealthy exploiters are ultimately punished and the pure-of-heart rewarded -- make the stories perennially appealing to readers, who not only identify with the Brothers of the Marshes psychologically but feel a kinship that bonds author and readers. The implicit assurance conveyed is that officials are corrupted, but “we” are all right.
The novel conveys a simple moral message: if we restrain our insatiable desires and fulfill our obligations, then the social organic ethics will be well tended, and we shall someday have a harmonious, ideal society, to which the bandits’ own community seems a microcosm. The outer society delineated in the novel, reflecting the actual situation at the time of writing, is diametrically opposite to this model. In it the upper classes stretch their hands greedily over their neighbor’s fences; they devour the poor and powerless. They disobey moral laws to the extent that nothing seems wrong to them; nothing right can be expected of them.
Thus within the reader’s heart echoes the warning call: If this dynasty does not meet with perdition, there is no retribution! The retribution did come at last. The very rottenness of the kingdom invited the invasion of the Juchen tribe. Like a mighty whirlwind, the dust of a host of horsemen came from the northeastern region, Manchuria. Emperors Hui Tsung and Ch’in Tsung were taken away by their captors, which ultimately resulted in the decline and fall of the Sung dynasty. This was the first time in history that the Chinese people were conquered by a foreign power. Generally speaking, history demonstrates that no country is ever truly overrun by invaders from outside; inward decay of society brings on its collapse. Thus the moral purification is called for.
Low Morals in High Society
Shui Hu Chuan: A Saga of the Marshes is written from the viewpoint of oppressed people who are under the heel of an evil upper class. In contrast, Hung Lou Men: Dream of the Red Chamber ( 紅樓夢 ) figuratively lifts the roof off to reveal what really goes on behind the well-mannered life of high society.
Hung Lou Meng is a multifaceted gem. Running to 120 chapters, it was written by Ts’ao Chan ( 曹霑 雪芹 , 1715?-1763) and completed by Kao E (c.1791).
In the Dream of the Red Chamber is drawn a vast panorama of Chinese family life, represented by the great house of Chia with its two main branches … some thirty main characters flanked by four hundred or more minor ones. This immense body of material, presented in a realistic manner…. 16
Like most Chinese novels, Hung Lou Meng scarcely intends to glorify the lifestyle of the rich and famous. The Confucian philosophy that has influenced to some degree or other everyone born in China has no connection with hedonism. Not surprisingly, Chinese novels always make a moral statement.
While immersed in the enormity of the plot and the story’s romantic nature, the reader should remember to be aware that the word “dream” has a negative connotation. The story “follows the declining fortune of a wealthy family of officials, providing an ominous setting of decaying luxury and extravagance….” 17 Since the tale is semi-autobiographical, readers should consider the author’s intention in telling it, and thus pay attention to the theme of decadence, which calls then for purification.
Writing now in a situation of poverty, the author admits his moral failure as “forsaking instructions of parents and elders, and neglecting the advice of teachers and friends, which causes him to become in this state of good for nothing.” 18 Reading the book, one witnesses the moral decay of the great Chia clan, which is the backdrop of the author’s confessional. Actually, early in the book, the network of corruption was already displayed, and Chapter 5 foreshadows the inevitability of a tragic end.
Takuanyuan (The Grand View Garden) and the Chia Mansion show off the Chia family’s pomp and prosperity in grandiose buildings and lushly elegant landscaping. But beneath the outward mannerism, the place is inwardly in moral decay. “Chia Gen, the nominal head of the clan, is far from being above reproach himself.” 19 The chief executive de facto, Phoenix, an unusually able shrew, accumulates money, asserts her power, and practices usury. Using her prestige and influence, she interferes with law suits, resulting in some people’s deaths.
Meanwhile, year after year, the great house has been running on high deficits. All kinds of vices and irregularities are commonplace. A relative, Hsueh Pan, acts as local tyrant by associating with gangsters and beating people to death. 20 And as if that is not enough, gambling, orgies, drunkenness and debauchery go on; even pornographic materials are found in the garden among the artificial mountain rocks. 21 Homosexuality, far from being a glorified “life style”, but treated as mischievous deed and abnormal, a forbidden subject to the Chinese, can also be read between the lines. These are the images of personae in the dream.
The reader cannot fail to notice that such immoral behaviors are only the tip of the threatening iceberg. No great seer is needed to foretell the end of this debauched clan. Except for the pair of stone lions outside the gate, nobody is clean at the Takuanyuan mansion. 22 Is this condition to be pitied and despised, or should one feel awe and admiration?
As to the lives and livelihoods of the common people, nobody in this well-mannered, high-class family cares to investigate them. Farmers and tradespeople are country bumpkins, to be ridiculed or despised, and trampled underfoot. The Chia family’s corruption affects its household staff. There are still some faithful servants, such as Pao Yung and Chiao Ta (Elder Chiao), who are honest and have integrity; but in such an environment, they are both naturally out of favor. 23 Both of them are treated with hostility and despised by fellow servants, and meet with the disfavor of their masters because they reflect the wrong value system of this ingrown group.
While heeding the characters who are seemingly successful and in power, the reader should pay special attention to the honest lower-class representatives, whose voice serves as the ominous handwriting that appears on the wall: The Chia clan, as the Bible would judge it, “… art weighed in the balances and art found wanting.” 24 Words issue from the mouth of Chiao Ta when he is drunk. Yet he is sober in mind, and his character and moral judgment are far superior to that of all others. When not in a drunken rage, he might not utter such upright speeches; but, intoxicated, he becomes the conscience of the Chia clan. On one occasion, he strives to unveil the truth, making a great show with fearless spirit:
He cried and begged to be taken to the ancestral hall so that he could tell his grievances to the spirit of his master. “I shall tell Tai Lao-yeh [the late Great Grand Father] what beasts his children have turned out to be. Do you think that Chiao Ta is blind? He is not, I assure you. He knows who is carrying on with her younger brother-in-law and who is crawling in ashes [adultery with one’s daughter-in-law]. You cannot hide a broken arm in your sleeves. It will come out….” 25
Indeed it came out. Everything disgraceful that is hidden will eventually be exposed to the light. This is the way of purification.
Nevertheless, Chiao could do nothing to correct the situation. Nor can the master of morals, Chia Cheng, remedy such ills. So we watch the horizon and wait for the prophesied storm to come. Then one day, during an extravagant feast when the hosts and guests are in merry spirits, the ruthless Imperial Guards surround the mansions; Chia Sheh and Chia Gen are arrested and their properties confiscated. 26 This pitiable downfall of the clan at Takuanyuan has been brought about by corruption. And corruption calls for purification.
A thematic subplot concerns a pretty young Buddhist nun, Miao-yu, who lives in an immaculate environment. She drinks tea brewed with boiled water made from melted snow. One day she is found in a state of mental disorder. After her recovery, during the dead of night, she is apparently abducted by, but some say eloped with, robbers. 27 People inevitably asked why all these incidents happened to her. It is then revealed that, despite appearances, she had been impure of heart and mind. The basic sinfulness needs purifying; outward cleanliness is not enough.
Despite the Chia family’s disdain for the lower class, after their ruination a rustic village woman Liu Lau-lau saves Phoenix’s innocent orphaned daughter, Ch’ao-er, from being sold into slavery. Then symbolically, at the end of the book the sentimental hero of the novel, Chia Pao-yu, after experiencing great havocs, escapes from the filthy world as a way of purifying himself. 28
The author delineates in detail the ugly side of the picture of wealth and luxurious living. Not for the sake of a novel of manners or of sensibility he presents his moral message, which is in line with Longfellow’s universal theme: “The Wrong shall fail, The Right prevail.” 29
The Quest for Purification
In another notable genre, Chinese popular novels contain an important leitmotif – a moralistic quest.
What causes the urge for a quest? A simple answer: some deep-rooted dissatisfaction. Being dissatisfied with one’s lot in life sometimes encourages people to take spiritual pilgrimages or enlist in seemingly religious crusades, as the Medieval Crusaders did in Europe; or else find other ways to enter some heroic military campaign. Dissatisfaction with one’s environment may propel people into traveling, or to emigrate -- as the seventeenth-century Puritans did when making their transatlantic voyage to America. Feeling dissatisfied with the condition of others may causes a person to assume some passionate or altruistic mission.
Ordinary people with scarce means, serious commitments to families and jobs, and little ambition or confidence often do not go on such quests. However, they can vicarious experience them by identifying with a certain character as alter ego, thereby acquiring temporary satisfaction.
One of the best-known novels of this quest genre is Ching Hua Yuan ( 鏡花緣 ) by Li Ju-Chen ( 李汝珍 , 1762?-1823?). The title means “Coincidences of Flower in a Mirror,” setting up the primary metaphor of the mirror for the story’s meaning. The novel resembles Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels in various ways and is also partly satirical in spirit.
Ching Hua Yuan presents three men as its main characters. One is a literatus named T’ang Ao. (One may have reason to interpret, from the original Chinese, “T’ang” as “China” and “Ao” as “pride”.) He is accompanied by a merchant, Lin Chih-Yang, and a naturalist-type named Tua Chiu Kung. They set out together on a voyage of exploration.
Among all the strange places which they visited, the most curious was the Country of Gentlemen, where they landed and proceeded at once to the capital city. There over the city gate, T’ang and his companions read the following legend:
“Virtue is man’s only jewel!”
They entered the city, which they found to be a busy and prosperous mart, the inhabitants all talking the Chinese language. Accordingly, T’ang accosted one of the passers-by, and asked him how it was his nation had become so famous for politeness and consideration of others; but, to his great astonishment, the man did not understand the meaning of his question. T’ang then asked him why this land was called the “Country of Gentlemen,” to which he likewise replied that he did not know. 30
“Truly this is the behavior of gentlemen!” T’ang exclaims. What to the people of this near-heavenly city seems like normal behavior, to our travelers is extraordinary virtue, reflecting a different value system. Because of the dialectical nature of language, if one sees a certain behavior as virtuous, then the antithesis means an inferior moral state. If others see the esteemed “virtues” are nothing more than normal, then obviously they are at a higher moral level.
This reversed version of morality, like a mirror image of one’s own face, lets one view one’s own moral state and that of the society as well from a different perspective. These discoveries dwarf the Chinese travelers’ egos by showing them what an ideal society should be, and how unworthy their own standards really are. This insight sobers them, and their chauvinistic pride slowly melts away. As they progress through their travels, they learn more about others, and they know more about themselves as well.
Yet more revelations and humbling and even humiliating experiences are to come. A conversation mirrors another side of the image, which is that things taken for granted in the travelers’ own country and accepted as being normal now start to seem abnormal, even vicious. As this reflection dawns on them, they have reason to question those practices.
Our travellers then fell into conversation with two respectable-looking old men who said they were brothers and accepted their invitation to go and take a cup of tea together. Their hosts talked eagerly about China, and wished to hear many particulars of “the first nation in the world.” Yet, while expressing their admiration for the high literary culture of its inhabitants and their unqualified successes in the arts and sciences, they did not hesitate to stigmatize as unworthy of a great people to have certain usages which appeared to them deserving of the utmost censure. They laughed at the superstitions of Feng-Shui, and wondered how intelligent men could be imposed upon year after year by the mountebank professors of such baseless nonsense. “If it is true,” said one of them, “that the selection of an auspicious day and a fitting spot for the burial of one’s father or mother is certain to bring prosperity to the survivors, how can you account for the fact that the geomancers themselves are always a low poverty-stricken lot? Surely they would begin by appropriating the very best positions themselves, and so secure whatever good fortune might happen to be in want of an owner.” Then again with regard to bandaging women’s feet in order to reduce their size. “We can see no beauty,” said they, “in such monstrosities as the feet of your ladies. Small noses are usually considered more attractive than large ones; but what would be said of a man who sliced a piece off his own nose in order to reduce it within proper limits?” 31
As the saying goes, seeing is believing. Since they are now in the Country of Gentlemen, the small party themselves can observe and examine the behaviors and practices of the people there, and they had little trouble finding out the reason for gaining such a wonderful name. At the marketplace, they see common people in everyday economic transactions with others. Instead of arguing for a lower price, the buyers insist on paying more; and conversely, the seller desires to accept less money or to give more merchandise.
“How very funny!” whispered T’ang to his friends. “Here, now, is quite a different custom from ours, where the buyer invariably tries to beat down the seller, and the seller to run up the price of his goods as high as possible. This certainly looks like the ‘consideration for others’ of which we spoke just now.” 32
While the people of the Country of Gentlemen regard this form of bargaining as normal, the travelers observe this alien custom of “consideration for others” as “very funny” and strange. We can sense that one of the two sides is in the wrong. The more the traveling trio observes, the more reduced their peacock plumage becomes. The qualities that Chinese take such pride in, such as humanity and empathy, propriety and righteousness, seem gone with the wind.
As its title connotes, Ching Hua Yuan mirrors human follies to its readers. An experiential story, of course, is a most effective device for doing this. One must be put into another’s shoes; and the novel does just that, literally. Indeed, others’ shoes prove far from comfortable: which happen when our travelers land in the Country of Women and find the women’s shoes too tight for them. 33
The nation has a matriarchal system, where women run everything. Of the three travelers, the handsome Lin Chih-Yang has the fairest complexion, so he is chosen to be a male concubine of the matriarchal monarch. Preparing him for entry into the harem, the bearded palace attendants pierce his ears and put on earrings. Then they bind his feet by force. Mr. Lin cannot help but protest with raining tears and loud cries which sound like killing hog, as the novel says. However, before the nuptial takes place, he gets out of harm’s way and rejoins his little group. And so they continue their journey.
Because Ching Hua Yuan aptly mirrors the social evils of polygamy, greed, foot-binding, and especially the hypocrisy of Chinese society, it lets readers see for themselves the need for moral purification. However, it took more than a century after this prophetic novel had been written for some rectification to come.
Though the author of Ching Hua Yuan did not attack the foundation of the Confucian theory of goodness of human nature, evidently he had strong doubts about the claim that China is a “Country of Li and I.”
A Lesson from History
Another popular historical novel that became a classic is Shuo Yueh: The Utmost Loyal Yueh Fei ( 精忠說岳 ). It is developed out of the poetical works of Ming dynasty (14th-17th centuries) authors Yao Mao-liang ( 姚茂良 ) and Li Mei-shih ( 李梅實 ), and is based on historical accounts and legends.
Yueh Fei ( 岳飛 1103-1141) was a general of the Sung dynasty. During the northern nomadic Juchen invasion, the capital city of Sung, Kaifeng, was overrun. The conquerors carried off the abdicated emperor Hui Tsung together with his son, the reigning emperor Ch’in Tsung. Commanding a small Sung force, Yueh Fei maneuvered and defeated the Juchen invaders and recovered some of the occupied territory. He was hailed as a hero, and for some time the future outlook for the dynasty seemed bright. Yueh even planned to launch an expedition that would push north to recover all the lost territory, and then restore the captured emperor to the throne.
Unfortunately, Yueh, a patriotic soldier, could not see that this prospective restoration was not welcomed by the reigning emperor for an unutterable reason. The minister Ch’in Kuei and his peace party in the court influenced the emperor to sign a peace treaty with Juchen. Falsely accused of treason, Yueh Fei was imprisoned and then executed.
The novel, extolling Yueh as a hero, popularized the idea of civic morality. Ch’in Kuei came to be viewed historically as a traitor himself. So as the novel has it, Ch’in and his wife, along with two of his fellow conspirators, received retribution and were condemned to hell. Hence justice ultimately prevailed. Today, Ch’in’s “gang of four” have been replicated in iron statues. Placed kneeling in front of Yueh’s mausoleum, at the scenic lake-side of Hangchou, they passively receive the ugly cursing and spitting that issue from the mouths of the visiting public.
Intentionally or unintentionally, politicians and warlords traditionally operate with this principle in mind: To propose peace with neighboring countries, especially when accepting seemingly unfavorable terms, is to become submissive, which to them is traitorous and immoral. Conversely, being bellicose and pursuing war is moral, even godlike. Under such terms, the conclusion is not hard to reach: if a war is won, one gets gold and glory; and even if the other side wins the war, those who fight and die for the cause still get the glory and deserve to be enshrined and worshiped as “god.” This is a no-lose, self-centered and self-served proposition. As a result, many people lose sight of the ethical basis for truly heroic deeds, and become influenced by their emotions. They then lose sight of the need for moral purification in their own society.
Moral purification, when skillfully publicized through literature, goes far beyond poetic justice. It formulates a climate of opinion and ethical standards in a given culture, and through the hearts of members of the society demands social justice.
Human history amply demonstrates the omnipresent corruptions in societies. There are also parallel corruptions in families and in individuals. So there is always a need for purification to cleanse moral disease on every level of human life. This diseased condition, whatever its origin, is a factual reality.
Chinese philosophy proclaims the importance of purification as general theory. Chinese popular literature manifests it, carrying this concept of moral purification along and propagating it, generation after generation, even though it may not be totally consistent with the philosophical idea. Because the approach to purification becomes individual and subjective, there can hardly be a perfect harmony between concept and means. And since human society is ever evolving in its belief systems and morality-training mechanisms, no solution for the delivery of purification can be final. But the need for it will always be with us.
While the Chinese people’s interest in private and public morality evolved through the centuries, on the other side of the globe other political and cultural systems were designing different ways of establishing, maintaining, and regulating human behavior. Only Christianity, however, really devised a way by which individuals could achieve direct contact with God through a spiritual transformation, the fruit of which is moral purification.
Paralleling the Chinese Confucian codes of humanistic ethics, Christians added a religious connection that gave morality a potent thrust. As with the Confucianists and Neo-Confucianists, it was largely written words that carry Christian teachings – the exhortations and messages – down through the centuries, continuously purveyed into people’s minds and hearts. It is no coincidence that both the religious and literary apex came at the Puritan Age.
Notes for Chapter 4
1. Yin-shen Yang, A History of Chinese Literature. Singapore: Commercial Publishing House, 1979, pp. 140, 152-154, 165.
2. Aristotle, On Poetics (De Poetica), trans. Ingram Bywater, in Great Books of the Western World, vol. 9. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1984, p. 686.
3. Yi Wu, The Mind of Chinese Ch’an (Zen). San Francisco: Great Learning Publishing Co., 1989, pp. 23-26.
4. Wu, Mind of Chan, p. 25.
5. Chu Hsi, “Reflections On Reading Books.”
6. Cf. the source from Chin Shu, with various folklore versions.
7. From Tun Huang Caves Pien Wen were discovered, including “Maha-Maudglyazana Delivered His Mother From Hell,” “The Ultimate Filial Piety of Shun,” etc., showed a syncretism of Buddhist episodes with Chinese traditional ethics.
8. Yang, pp. 301-302.
9. William McNaughton, ed. Chinese Literature. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1974, pp. 472-498.
10. All Men are Brothers: A Saga of the Marshes, trans. Pearl Buck. New York: John Day, 1968.
11. All Men, ch. 15.
12. All Men, ch. 2.
13. All Men, ch. 1.
14. Liu Wu-Chi, An Introduction to Chinese Literature. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Press, 1966, p. 208.
15. Shih, Shui Hu Chuan: A Saga of the Marshes, chs. 7-11.
16. Shih, p. 238.
17. James Robert Hightower, Topics in Chinese Literature. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1965, p. 108.
18. Tsao, chs. 1, 4, 5. Some commentators argue that this arrangement is a misplacement of Kao’s version.
19. Dream of the Red Chamber, trans. Chi-chen Wang. New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1958, ch. 3, p. 37.
20. Tsao, chs. 3, 86, 99, 15, 16, 105.
21. Tsao, ch. 73.
22. Tsao, ch. 66, in Liu Hsiang-lien’s words.
23. Tsao, chs. 107, 105.
24. Daniel 5:5, 25-28.
25. Hung Lou Meng, chs. 7, 105. trans. Wang, pp. 62-63.
26. Hung Lou Meng, ch. 105.
27. Hung Lou Meng, chs. 87, 112.
28. Hung Lou Meng, ch. 120.
29. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, “Christmas Bells,” in George Gesner, ed., Anthology of American Poetry. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1991, p. 126.
30. Herbert A. Giles, History of Chinese Literature. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1923, p. 316.
31. Giles, pp. 321-322.
32. Giles, p. 317.
33. Li, Ching Hua Yuan, ch. 33.